Analysis of the Impacts of Domestic Violence on Children

About this Dissertation Example

This dissertation example, written by Best Dissertation Writers, examines the rising prevalence of domestic violence and its impact on children. The study analyzes trends and gaps in existing research through a library-based project, utilizing databases such as PubMed and PsycINFO. Findings reveal a positive correlation between childhood exposure to domestic violence and poor academic performance, social development, and parent-child attachment. The research also highlights mental health consequences, including post-traumatic stress disorders and sleep disturbances. The authors emphasize the need for effective strategies to prevent domestic violence and manage its effects on children, addressing the limitations of current policy implementation.

Analysis of the Impacts of Domestic Violence on Children: A Library-Based Qualitative Research

Abstract

The number of domestic violence victims has been on the rise in recent years. Children are among the people who are also severely affected by such incidences. Even though there are various policies that had been formulated, the reviewed studies showed that their implementation process is still faced with a lot of setbacks hence a pivotal catalyst to the increasing number of families affected with domestic violence issues. The main focus of the present study was to analyse the impacts of domestic violence on children. In order to achieve the set goal, the study followed a specific structure composed of the introduction, methodology, literature review, and then conclusion and recommendation. There are many studies that had been previously conducted in this area; hence the present research was focused on analysing the trends and gaps present in those studies. For that matter, a library-based project was conducted by searching for relevant literature from different databases such as PubMed, Science Direct, and PsycINFO. The analysis of the data collected from the selected studies showed that there is a positive relationship between experiencing domestic violence as a child and registering poor academic performance and social development. Furthermore, episodes of domestic violence may also interfere with the quality of parent-child attachment hence exposing the affected children to severe health problems such as sleep disorders, post-traumatic stress disorders, among others. When the students are exposed to domestic violence episodes, their mental health would be negatively impacted hence leading to the development of problems such as post-traumatic stress disorders. For that matter, there is a need to formulate and present strategies that would help in preventing or reducing the incidences of domestic violence as well as managing the health problems experienced by the affected children.

Keywords: domestic violence, library-based project, children, social development, mental health.

Chapter One: Introduction

Rationale and Background for The Study

The rates and effects of domestic violence on children are an area that has been extensively assessed by different researchers. Based on the information presented in the study by Woodlock (2017), 29.5 percent of the United Kingdom children aged below 18 years have been exposed to different forms of domestic violence and that approximately 5.9 percent of the children in this country are often exposed to such violence every year. Additionally, Howell et al. (2016) noted that the children who grow up in families that are characterised by high cases of domestic violence are often vulnerable to mental health problems as well as poor social skills. The other impacts of domestic violence on children that have been documented in the past studies include poor physical health (Morrison 2015), high risk of school dropout and poor academic performance (Vidal et al. 2017) high risk of being involved in criminal behaviours, as well as poor intimate relationships and friendship in future (Namy et al. 2017). For that matter, there is need to develop highly effective strategies that would be used for helping the children from such families.

Parents have the responsibility of taking care of their children by offering protection Woodlock (2017) and providing them with basic needs such as food, shelter, clothing, education, among others. Furthermore, children must be shown, love. Unfortunately, most of the children who are coming from the families experiencing domestic violence are not in the position of enjoying such privileges in life. Domestic violence and abuse can pervade the involved families as well as exposing them to different types of negative consequences, such as poor relationship in the family, that might interfere with the overall family structure and pattern (Skivenes and Stenberg, 2015). According to the information presented in the research studies by Morrison (2015) and Howell et al. (2016), intimate partner violence can interfere with the children’s functioning as a result of the potential mental health consequences which are experienced by their mothers. The level of physical or emotional distress that is experienced by the mothers during pregnancy can impact their parental warmth, caregiving skills as well as the development of a healthy attachment with their partners and children (Izaguirre and Calvete 2015). Inappropriately, a large percentage of these new and severe risks to fetal development does not automatically decrease the following birth.

Similarly, Skivenes and Stenberg (2015) noted that the occurrence of continuous domestic violence or intimate partner violence would negatively interfere with the attachment relationships between children and parents, especially their mothers. In a study conducted by Namy et al. (2017), that involved 72 mothers and their 15-month old infants, it was determined that the exposure of the mothers to intimate partner violence would lead to child’s disorganised attachment style and that more than 75 percent of the infants in the study being determined to be insecurely attached. Additionally, the longitudinal research conducted by Izaguirre and Calvete (2015) concluded that domestic violence or intermate partner violence has a positive relationship with the children’s attachment to their parents (especially their mothers) over time. The occurrence of lower cases of intimate partner violence would influence the development of stable attachment relationships between the children and their parents (Vidal et al. 2017). Therefore, intimate partner violence poses to primary caregiving relationships, as well as social development during the infancy stage of development, is severe and associated with prolonged difficulties across childhood.

Chapter Two: Methodology

Studies focusing on the factors influencing the occurrence of domestic violence, impacts of domestic violence on marriage success, and spouses’ health have, in recent years, increased (Vidal et al. 2017). Nevertheless, there is still a limited number of studies analysing the impacts of domestic violence on children (Izaguirre and Calvete 2015). For that matter, conducting a critical analysis of secondary data on this topic would help in generating new insights such as the relationship between quality of health among children and domestic violence, and to propose strategies to managing children’s health problems associated with domestic violence.

Aims and Purpose of the Research

Research Aims

• To analyse the impacts of domestic violence on children’s current and future relationships.
• To assess how family violence interferes with the academic performance and social development among children.
• To analyse the impacts of domestic violence on the mental health of the involved children.
• To propose strategies that may be used to help the children from families characterised by domestic violence to cope with the developed problems.

Purpose of the Research

Even though there are increasing cases of domestic violence in the United Kingdom, very few studies have assessed the impacts of this kind of violence on children (Smith‐Marek et al. 2015). For that matter, the present study would fill this gap by providing a comprehensive explanation of the impacts of domestic violence on children. Furthermore, both Woodlock (2017) and Namy et al. (2017) reported that there are still very few strategies already formulated to help children from families characterised by domestic violence to cope with such situations effectively. Therefore, the present study would also propose policies that would be used to improve the health status of the affected children.

Research Approach and Techniques

The present study employed a qualitative secondary research approach for the collection and analysis of the data. Specifically, library-based qualitative research was used for this purpose. As explained by Robson (2011), library-based research has, in recent years, proven to be of great importance and value as it allows the researcher to collect and analyse the data from the previous studies on a similar subject area. The technique is very appropriate, especially in areas which had been extensively researched, but still have some gaps that should be filled. The library-based research that was employed followed necessary procedures such as searching for the relevant studies, using inclusion and exclusion criteria to identify the most relevant studies, data analysis, and then theme development and presentation.

Protocol for The Search Phase

In order to successfully identify original studies about the impacts of domestic violence on children, different databases, such as PubMed, Science Direct, and PsycINFO, were searched. An important factor that influenced the selection of these databases over the others is their high reputation of hosting high-quality and up-to-date research studies on social work, mental and social health problems. The keywords that were used during the search process include “domestic violence” or “intimate partner violence” or “children’s health” or “physical health” or “mental health” or “social development” or “divorce” or “parental love.” According to Robson (2011), the use of keywords during the search process is crucial as they describe the central concept within the research question or topic. There was a closer examination of the full texts among the identified studies in order to select the most appropriate studies for reviewing.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The selection of the appropriate studies for reviewing was achieved by using inclusion and exclusion criteria. As explained by Banister et al. (2011), a study must meet all of the set inclusion criteria to be selected for the reviewing process. The first inclusion criterion was that the studies must have been published between 2015 and 2019 to help in ensuring that only those studies with the latest information about the subject matter are included. For that matter, those studies published in 2014 and earlier were excluded. Furthermore, only those studies that assessed the impacts of domestic violence on children were selected. Therefore, others that evaluated the effects of domestic violence on quality of marriage, couple’s health, among others, were excluded. The other inclusion criterion was that the study must be initially written in the English language and included the assessment of the United Kingdom population. Studies published in other languages such as French, Spanish, among others or included participants from different countries other than the United Kingdom, were excluded.

Data Analysis

The data analysis process was done through the application of a thematic analysis approach. Gibson (2009) and Gomm (2008) noted that thematic analysis is an essential form of qualitative data analysis that is focused on identifying, analysing and interpreting themes or patterns of meaning within the qualitative data. The selection of thematic analysis was influenced by its high flexibility as well as the ability to interpret secondary data successfully. The thematic analysis process was conducted by following the procedure provided in the study by Castleberry and Nolen (2018). The first in the data analysis involved data familiarisation where the research read through all of the selected studies. Subsequently, the researcher assigned preliminary codes to the collected data to adequately describe the content. The third step involved the generation of themes based on the codes derived from each of the reviewed articles. After that, evaluating, defining, and interpreting the identified themes as well as reporting the obtained findings was performed.

Ethical Dilemmas

The concerns regarding the use of secondary data have primarily revolved around the potential harm to the individual subjects as well as the issues of return for consent (Reid et al. 2018). Even though the present research led to the production of appropriate data that were used for answering the research questions, it is essential to know that there were still some critical ethical dilemmas which impacted the quality of the study. The first dilemma was inadequate access to library materials. Even though many studies had been conducted to determine the impacts of domestic violence on children, very few of them were on “free-access” format, with some of them requiring the approval of the author before their use. The protection of intellectual property rights was another essential ethical dilemma that was experienced during the study. As explained by Ngozwana (2018), library-based researchers do not often seek permission from the article authors before they are reviewed, a behavior which put the intellectual property right of the scholars at risk. In order to address this issue, only those studies which were on “free-access” and their authors permitted their use in subsequent studies were selected and reviewed. 

Chapter Three: Literature Review

Introduction

According to the Office of National Statistics, approximately 7.9 percent of women and 4.2% of men had been affected by domestic violence in the United Kingdom during the year 2018 (ONS 2018). Furthermore, Smith‐Marek et al. (2015) noted that domestic violence has a positive relationship with poor academic performance. Similarly, Grasso et al. (2016) determined that 35 percent of the children with lower reading abilities, as well as reduced overall academic performance are often coming from families that are characterised by high cases of domestic violence. Therefore, there is a need to address this social problem before it affects a large percentage of the United Kingdom’s population. The main focus of this chapter would provide a comprehensive analysis of the themes that were developed following the data collected from the reviewed studies. In this chapter, the following themes would be analysed; witnessing domestic violence as a child, current and future relationships among the children, social development and academic performance among the affected children, mental health quality, as well as the strategies for helping the children who have been exposed to domestic violence.

Witnessing Domestic Violence as A Child

Domestic violence is an ongoing experience of psychological, physical, and or sexual abuse in the homes that are used for establishing power and control over another person (Maneta, White and Mezzacappa 2017). Even though the initial intention of such violence was not to impact the lives of children in any way, it is essential to note that the children are among the most vulnerable people to be affected by the impacts of domestic violence (Grasso et al. 2016). Children who have witnessed domestic violence are often more likely to develop mental and psychological health problems (Bowen 2015). Therefore, this theme would explain the impacts of witnessing domestic violence as a child.

Grasso et al. (2016) argued that it might be straightforward for people to assume the social and mental health problems affecting children from families undergoing domestic violence. In some cases, the children may seem to be doing well, or their parents are often protecting them by keeping them away from violent incidents (Lyons et al. 2015). Nonetheless, the impacts of belonging to a family that is characterised by domestic violence episodes might be detrimental to the children. Maneta, White, and Mezzacappa (2017) supported that claim by noting that many children may vividly describe the traumatic events they heard without physically being present at the violent scene. However, it is imperative to note that neither of the studies described the specific types of psychological health problems that children who have witnessed domestic violence may develop. Therefore, this is one of the critical gaps in the literature that the present study would be focused on filling.

Previous studies that have assessed the impacts of domestic violence on the child have focused on different aspects such as cognitive development (Katz 2015), behavioural changes (Eriksson and Mazerolle 2015), as well as emotional impacts (Foshee et al. 2016). Correspondingly, both Sharps et al. (2016) and Grasso et al. (2016) are in agreement that children who have experienced domestic violence often express similar psychological problems. Specifically, Grasso et al. (2016) mentioned that these children are often at higher risk of developing internalised behaviours such as depression and anxiety, in addition to externalised behaviours such as bullying, cheating, fighting, and lying. Nonetheless, the studies by Katz (2015), Sharps et al. (2016) and Grasso et al. (2016) have a common limitation as they did not examine how domestic violence may interfere with the academic life of the children, hence an important area that the present study would focus on improving.

Even though Katz (2015) and Sharps et al. (2016) generally described the potentially adverse effects of domestic violence on the health of children, Maneta, White and Mezzacappa (2017), Lyons et al. (2015), Vu et al. (2016) on the other hand went into details by classifying the types of impacts which may be experienced by the children based on their ages. For example, the potential implications of witnessing domestic violence among the infants include disrupted attachment, poor sleeping habits, eating problems, and a higher risk of physical injury (Vu et al. 2016). On the other hand, the potential impacts highlighted in the study by Lyons et al. (2015) among preschool children include feelings of unsafety, separation or stranger anxiety, insomnia, and parasomnias as well as the development of regressive behaviours.

Current and Future Relationships Among Children

Domestic violence cannot only threaten the psychological, physical, and emotional health of the children but also may affect the social life of the children both in the present days and in the future (Porche, Costello, and Rosen-Reynoso 2016). Regarding the explanations provided by Howarth et al. (2015), the impacts of domestic violence may be used to adequately explain the possible types of difficulties that an individual might experience both during the parenting process and the intimate relationships. Therefore, the main aim of this theme would be analyse how experiencing domestic violence may affect the present and future lives of the children.

Howarth et al. (2015) argued that parents have the responsibility of protecting their children. Therefore, the distress within the quality of child-parent relationships may be caused when the parents have no ability to safeguarding their children hence leading to the straining of the attachments. Even though Foshee et al. (2015) failed to highlight the quality of attachment between the parent and child, the study believes that the environment within which the child is brought up in has a significant impact on both his or her present and future relationship with other people. Such arguments were in agreement with the findings from the study by Opaas and Varvin (2015), where it was noted that the nature of their environment primarily influences the quality of child developmental process.

Nevertheless, it is essential to note that the studies by Porche, Costello, and Rosen-Reynoso (2016), Opaas and Varvin (2015) and Howarth et al. (2015) had significant limitation as none of them used theoretical approach to explain how domestic violence may impact the present and future lives of the affected children. Therefore, this is an essential area that the current study would like to improve. Specifically, there is a need to examine how the social learning theory may be used to explain how exposure to domestic violence may impact the present and future lives of the involved children.

Social Development and Academic Performance Among the Children

Some of the critical impacts of domestic violence on children include poor social life development and poor academic performance (Guedes et al. 2016, and Hackett, McWhirter and Lesher 2016). As cited in the study by Foshee et al. (2015), the social development is the process through which the child learns to interact with other people around them,  and that they may also gain essential skills for communicating with others as well as process their actions during the development of process of perception of the own individuality within their environment. Social development can impact different types of developmental processes among children. In this theme, the studies that have assessed the impacts of domestic violence on social development and academic performance of the children would be reviewed.

According to Hilton, Harris and Rice (2015), at least one in five women has been exposed to domestic violence in England and Wales at the age of 16 years and below, a number which equates to 4.8 million women. Engaging in domestic violence is an essential characteristic of poor parenting (Huang et al. 2015). Correspondingly, Porche, Costello and Rosen-Reynoso (2016) and Guedes et al. (2016) argued that pad parenting habits such as engaging in violence as a means of solving family issues might have critical social problems among the children, such as antisocial behaviours, reduced resilience, aggression, violent habits, bullying among others.

Many studies, such as Hilton, Harris and Rice (2015), Hackett, McWhirter and Lesher (2016), Foshee et al. (2015) and Felitti et al. (2019), have determined that domestic violence episodes have significant impacts on both the social and academic performance among the children. Hackett, McWhirter and Lesher (2016) noted that domestic violence is a bad practice that can interfere with the quality of education and academic performance among the children in one way or the other, regardless of their age, race, gender, culture or religious orientation. There is a strong relationship between the arguments provided by Hackett, McWhirter and Lesher (2016) and the findings from the research study by Foshee et al. (2015), which indicated that 86 percent of the learners who have experienced domestic violence showed poor academic performance. Exposing children to violent family environments might interfere with their social development leading to the occurrence of social isolation, loneliness, poor relationship with their colleagues, development of violent acts such as bullying, abusive among others (Banyard, Hamby and Grych 2017). Such newly developed characteristics may prevent the children from paying much attention in their academic work hence leading to poor performance. 

Correspondingly, some of the potential indicators of domestic violence among the children include self-blame, self-harm, suicidal ideation, risk-taking behaviours, weak social networks, substance abuse, depression, criminal actions, and disaffection with education (Howarth et al. 2015). All of these indicators may prevent the affected children from concentrating in their classwork or practicing healthy behaviours in their school environments hence leading to poor performance in their school activities. Guedes et al. (2016) elucidated that the separation anxiety, as a result of domestic violence, may not only negatively impact the pre-school children but also the young school-aged children who may influence those children to develop negative feelings towards school and learning process.

Both Huang et al. (2015) and Hilton, Harris and Rice (2015) presented similar arguments regarding the impacts of domestic violence on the development of emotional problems that may disrupt the learning process among the school-going children. The issues highlighted in those studies include poor attentiveness and concentration in class, insecurity, non-attendance, and increased absenteeism, sleep disturbance, guilt, withdrawal, depression, and low self-esteem. Nevertheless, it is imperative to note that none of the studies reviewed under this theme assessed how the social development and academic performance of the children sharing a class with those exposed to domestic violence might be impacted. Therefore, this is a significant limitation that the present study would like to capitalise on as an approach to developing new knowledge in this research area.

Instead of only focusing on the direct impacts of domestic violence on the academic performance among the affected children, Felitti et al. (2019) went ahead to analyse the possible indirect effects of this social problem. In that study, it was noted that children from families experiencing episodes of domestic violence are at higher chances of developing bullying behaviours that they may use to make their colleagues in the school to feel uncomfortable. For that matter, domestic violence is a significant social problem that should be addressed as an approach to protecting children.

Impacts of Exposure to Domestic Violence on the Quality of Childhood Mental Health

Different studies, such as Banyard, Hamby and Grych (2017), Huang et al. (2015) and Hilton, Harris and Rice (2015), have shown that there is a positive relationship between the quality of childhood mental health and the exposure to domestic violence. Children who have experienced domestic violence would have a state of mental health (Banyard, Hamby and Grych 2017). Mental health refers to the behavioural, cognitive, and emotional wellbeing of an individual; hence it is about how a person thinks, feels, and behaves (Howarth et al. 2015). The quality of mental health has significant impacts on the daily life, relationships as well as the physical health of an individual. Similarly, Huang et al. (2015) described mental health as the ability of an individual to enjoy life by attaining a perfect balance between life activities and the efforts to realise psychological resilience.

Importantly, affection and distrust often coexist among the abusers hence influencing the child to become overprotective of the victims and feeling sorry for them. Felitti et al. (2019) further agreed with the arguments provided by Hilton, Harris and Rice (2015) concerning the impacts of domestic violence on a child’s mental health by identifying problems such as anxiety and the fear of being injured or abandoned by their parents. Additionally, Grasso et al. (2016) claimed that some children might be depressed as they think that they are the people to be blamed for the violence taking place in their homes. Even though Hilton, Harris and Rice (2015) only highlighted depression and anxiety as the critical emotional problems that could be experienced by children from abusive families, Banyard, Hamby and Grych (2017) and Grasso et al. (2016) went ahead to mention other critical emotional symptoms that might because of domestic violence, such as shame, grief as well as low self-esteem.

Among the studies reviewed to identify the mental health problems associated with domestic violence, only Felitti et al. (2019) and Howarth et al. (2015) identified the transfer of role reversal to children, from their parents who are victims of psychological and emotional dysfunction caused by domestic violence. In such situations, Felitti et al. (2019) argued that the parents would stop treating the young ones as their children but as therapists and confidants. For that matter, the children would be forced to mature faster than the average child to successfully perform the new roles provided to them by their parents. Some of the new roles that the child would be expected to perform, as explained in the study by Howarth et al. (2015), including caring for their younger siblings, doing house chores such as cooking and cleaning. Eventually, such children would suffer from social isolation and not actively participating in the activities which are standard for the children of their age.

Strategies for Helping Domestically Abused Children

The primary strategy that has been explained in different studies, such as Bowen (2015), Grych (2017), and Maneta, White and Mezzacappa (2017), is educating the parents on the importance of maturing their children in a healthy and violent free environment. Specifically, Grych (2017) noted that the parents who engage in extreme domestic activities should consider seeking help from other people to prevent exposing their children to unwanted and unhealthy environments that might interfere with their growth and development. Nevertheless, Maneta, White and Mezzacappa (2017) argued that this strategy would not help those who have already been exposed to such problems. Domestic violence events are an outstanding example of traumatic episodes in the life of the child that may lead to the development of post-traumatic stress disorders.

The symptoms for this mental health problem include insomnia, nightmares, poor concentration, increased alertness to the environment (Grasso et al. 2016). Banyard, Hamby and Grych (2017) further explained that children with post-traumatic stress disorders might also be at high risk of experiencing physical injuries. Both Howarth et al. (2015) and Huang et al. (2015) presented a common argument in that children who are exposed to early maltreatment, such as the episodes of domestic violence, within the caregiving relationships would develop complex traumatic stress disorder that would severely impact their social, mental, emotional and physical health.

The problems associated with domestic violence have generated a large number of interventions within the social service, law enforcement, and health domains (Foshee et al. 2016). According to the argument provided by Izaguirre and Calvete (2015), school-going children often spend much of their time in school environments. For that matter, developing strategies to help those children to cope with their health problems would require constant involvement of the school. Teachers and other education stakeholders should, therefore, ensure that such children are identified, guided, counseled, and provided with necessary resources that would help them to realise positive mental, social and physical growth and development processes.

Gaps in Literature

Even though studies such as Maneta, Foshee et al. (2015), Eriksson and Mazerolle (2015) and Bowen (2015) proposed different strategies that could be used for helping those children who were exposed to domestic violence to regain their mental health status, none of them highlighted the age-specific approaches. Concerning the fact that both Sharps et al. (2016) and White and Mezzacappa (2017) acknowledged that the magnitude of domestic violence impacts depends on the age of the children involved, it would be essential to formulate and implement strategies which are specifically focused on addressing the mental and social health problems among children within a specified age group. For that matter, this is one of the most critical gaps in the literature that the present library-based project has identified that would like to fill. Based on the data collected from the review process, a large percentage of the domestic violence victims are women. Nevertheless, the studies have failed to highlight some of the reasons that have influenced the occurrence of this trend. Even though the present review would not look into such factors, it is justifiable to note that this is an important area for future research. The data from those studies would, therefore, be used for developing strategies for ending or reducing domestic violence cases.

Chapter Four: Conclusion and Recommendations

Conclusion

Even though there are strategies put in place to help in reducing the incidences of domestic violence, previous studies on this area show that the number of people exposed to this problem is still on the rise. Unfortunately, children are the most affected people. Children brought up in violent domestic families have higher chances of experiencing growth and development problems. Based on the fact that there are a lot of studies that have been conducted to determine the impacts of domestic violence on children, the present study opted for the library-based project to identify the prevailing trends and literature gaps in those studies. The first important finding that was made is that children exposed to domestic violence are at risk of developing mental health problems such as sleep disorders, withdrawal, and isolation, post-traumatic stress disorders, among others. Additionally, the existing library-based project determined that children who are brought up in families characterised by domestic violence would register imperfect social development processes as well as have poor academic performance in school. The present study also noted that there is a positive relationship between exposing children to violent domestic episodes and poor present and future relationships.

Study Limitations

Even though the present study was able to achieve its intended outcomes, it is justifiable to note that there were still other vital limitations that could be experienced. The first limitation was associated with the over-reliance on the secondary data to make conclusions. One of the problems related to the use of secondary data is that they may lead to the development of inappropriate conclusions as the researcher is not aware of the actual source of the data presented in the studies being reviewed. Nonetheless, the present research only selected those studies that were published in reputable databases and journals as an approach to increasing the chances to collect and analyse high-quality data. Furthermore, the study design that was chosen did not allow for the presentation of the primary perception of the participants regarding the impacts of domestic violence on children.

Recommendations

Because the research study was able to report a positive relationship between domestic violence and poor mental health, social development, and academic performance, there is a need for the formulation and implementation of strategies for preventing or reducing the incidences of domestic violence in society. The present research focused on collecting and analysing secondary data. For that matter, it is recommendable for future studies in this area to consider collecting and analysing primary data to promote the reporting of first-hand information from the affected people. Furthermore, it is essential to note that a large percentage of the research studies reviewed in the present research has used qualitative approaches. Therefore, performing a primary quantitative research study on the impacts of domestic violence on children may lead to the generation of unique and new knowledge.

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